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This Handbook describes and discusses the features that make up the petroleum refining industry. It begins with a description of the crude oils and their nature. It continues with the saleable products from the refining processes, with a review of the modern day environmental impact.

ToC:

Contents

Chapter 1. An introduction to crude oil and its processing

The composition and characteristics of crude oil

The crude oil assay

Other basic definitions and correlations

Predicting product qualities

Basic processes

The processes common to most energy refineries

Processes not so common to energy refineries

The non-energy refineries

References

Chapter 2. Petroleum products and a refinery configuration

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Petroleum products

2.3 A discussion on the motive fuels of gasoline and diesel

2.4 A refinery process configuration development

Conclusion

Chapter 3. The atmospheric and vacuum crude distillation units

3.1 The atmospheric crude distillation unit

Process description

The development of the material balance for the atmospheric crude distillation unit

The design characteristics of an atmospheric crude distillation fractionating tower

The fractionator overhead system

The side streams and intermediate reflux sections

Calculating the main tower dimensions

The crude feed preheat exchanger system design

An example in the design of an atmospheric crude oil distillation tower

3.2 The vacuum crude distillation unit

Process description

The vacuum crude distillation unit’s flash zone

The tower overhead ejector system

Calculating flash zone conditions in a vacuum unit

Draw-off temperatures

Determine pumparound and internal flows for vacuum towers

Calculate tower loading in the packed section of vacuum towers

Appendix

Chapter 4. The distillation of the ‘Light Ends’ from crude oil

A process description of a ‘light ends’ unit

Developing the material balance for light end units

Calculating the operating conditions in light end towers

Calculating the number of trays in light end towers

Condenser and reboiler duties

Tower loading and sizing

Checks for light end tower operation and performance

Chapter 5. Catalytic reforming

Feedstocks

Catalysts

Process flow schemes

Advantages of CCR Platforming

Catalysts and suppliers

References

Chapter 6. Fluid catalytic cracking (FCC)

Fluidization

Process control

Reaction chemistry and mechanisms

Gas oil cracking technology features

Cracking for light olefins and aromatics

Nomenclature

References

Appendix 6.1. Commercially available FCC catalysts and additives

Chapter 7. Distillate hydrocracking

Brief history

Flow schemes

Chemistry

Catalysts

Catalyst manufacturing

Catalyst loading and activation

Catalyst deactivation and regeneration

Design and operation of hydrocracking reactors

Hydrocracking process variables

Hydrocracker licensors and catalyst manufacturers

Chapter 8. Hydrotreating

Brief history

Flow schemes

Chemistry

Catalysts

Catalyst manufacturing

Catalyst loading and activation

Catalyst deactivation and regeneration

Design and operation of hydrotreating reactors

Hydrotreating process variables

Hydrotreaters licensors and catalyst manufacturers

Chapter 9. Gasoline components

9.1 Motor fuel alkylation

Introduction

History

Process chemistry

HF alkylation process flow description

Sulfuric acid alkylation

Stratco effluent refrigerated alkylation process

Alkylate properties

Recent developments

Conclusions

References

9.2 Catalytic olefin condensation

Introduction

History

Catalytic condensation process

Catalytic condensation process for gasoline production

Hydrogenated versus nonhydrogenated polymer gasolines from the catalytic condensation process

Selective and nonselective gasoline production with the catalytic condensation process

Catalytic condensation process as a source of diesel fuels

Petrochemical operations

Dimersol process

Other dimerization or oligomerization processes

Recent developments

Catalytic olefin condensation with the InAlk process

Catalyst suppliers

Conclusions

References

9.3 Isomerization technologies for the upgrading of light naphtha and refinery light ends

Introduction

Process chemistry of paraffin isomerization

Primary reaction pathways

Isomerization catalysts

I-80 catalyst development and applications

LPI-100 catalyst development and applications

New isomerization process technologies

Isomerization process economics

Other applications

Conclusions

References

Bibliography

Chapter 10. Refinery gas treating processes

Introduction

The process development and description

Common processes

Other gas treating processes

Calculating the amine circulation rate

Calculating the number of theoretical trays in an amine contactor

Calculating absorber tray size and design

Calculating the heat transfer area for the lean/rich amine exchanger

The stripper design and performance

Removing degradation impurities from MEA

Appendix 10.1 The process design of an amine gas treating unit

Chapter 11. Upgrading the ‘Bottom of the Barrel’

The thermal cracking processes

‘Deep oil’ fluid catalytic cracking

Residuum hydrocracking

Conclusion

Appendix 11.1 Sizing a thermal cracker heater/reactor

Chapter 12. The non-energy refineries

Introduction

12.1 The lube oil refinery

Lube oil properties

A description of major processes in lube oil refining

12.2 Asphalt production

12.3 The petrochemical refinery

The production of aromatics

Process discussion

Appendix 12.1 Sizing a bitumen oxidizer

Chapter 13. Support systems common to most refineries

13.1 Control systems

Definitions

Reflux drums

The control valve

13.2 Offsite systems

Storage facilities

Atmospheric storage

Pressure storage

Heated storage tanks

Calculating heat loss and heater size for a tank

Product blending facilities

Road and rail loading facilities

Jetty and dock facilities

Jetty size, access, and location

Waste disposal facilities

The flare

Effluent water treating facilities

Other treating processes

Utility Systems

Brief descriptions of typical utility systems

Steam and condensate systems

Fuel systems

Water systems

The “hot lime” process

The ion exchange processes

Compressed air system

13.3 Safety systems

Determination of risk

Definitions

Types of pressure relief valves

Capacity

Sizing of required orifice areas

Sizing for flashing liquids

Sizing for gas or vapor on low-pressure subsonic flow

Appendix 13.1 Example calculation for sizing a tank heater

Appendix 13.2 Example calculation for sizing a relief value

Appendix 13.3 Control valve sizing

Chapter 14. Environmental control and engineering in petroleum refining

Introduction

14.1 Aqueous wastes

Pollutants in aqueous waste streams

Treating refinery aqueous wastes

Oxidation of sulfides to thiosulfates

Oxidation of mercaptans

Oxidation of sulfide to sulfate

Oil–water separation

The API oil–water separator

Storm surge ponds

Other refinery water effluent treatment processes

Reference

14.2 Emission to the atmosphere

Features of the Clean Air Act

The major effects of air pollution and the most common pollutants

Monitoring atmospheric emission

Reducing and controlling the atmospheric pollution in refinery products

Controlling emission pollution from the refining processes

14.3 Noise pollution

Noise problems and typical in-plant/community noise standards

Fundamentals of acoustics and noise control

Coping with noise in the design phase

A typical community/in-plant noise program

Appendix 14.1 Partial pressures of H2S and NH3 over aqueous solutions of H2S and NH3

Appendix 14.2 Example of the design of a sour water stripper with no reflux

Appendix 14.3 Example design of an API separator

Chapter 15. Refinery safety measures and handling of hazardous materials

Introduction

15.1 Handling of hazardous materials

Anhydrous hydrofluoric acid

The amines used in gas treating

Caustic soda

Furfural

Hydrogen sulfide, H2S

Methyl ethyl ketone, MEK

15.2 Fire prevention and fire fighting

The design specification

Fire prevention with respect to equipment design and operation

The fire main

Fire foam and foam systems

Class B fire foams

Class A fire foams

Chapter 16. Quality control of products in petroleum refining

Introduction

16.1 Specifications for some common finished products

The LPG products

The gasolines

The kerosenes

Aviation turbine gasoline (ATG) and jet fuels

The gas oils

The fuel oil products

The lube oils

The asphalts

Petroleum coke

Sulfur

16.2 The description of some of the more common tests

Specific gravity (D1298)

ASTM distillations (D86, D156)

Flash point test method (D93)

Pour point and cloud point (D97)

Kinematic viscosity (D446)

Reid vapor pressure (D323)

Weathering test for the volatility of LPG (D1837)

Smoke point of kerosenes and aviation turbine fuels (D1322)

Conradson carbon residue of petroleum products (D189)

Bromine number of petroleum distillates (D1159)

Sulfur content by lamp method (D1266)

Octane number research and motor

Conclusion

Chapter 17.1. Economics—Refinery planning, economics, and handing new projects

17.1.1 Refinery operation planning

Running plans

Developing the running plan

Background

Basis for assessing requirements

The results

The refinery operating program

17.1.2 Process evaluation and economic analysis

Study approach

Building process configurations and the screening study

Example calculation

Investment costs for the new facilities

Preparing more accurate cost data

Summary data sheets

Capital cost estimates

Discounted cash flow and economic analysis

Results

Using linear programs to optimize process configurations

Executing an approved project

Developing the duty specification

The project team

Primary activities of the project team

Developing the operating manual and plant commissioning

Process guarantees and the guarantee test run

Appendices

17.1.1 Refinery plan inadequacies report

17.1.2 Crude oil inventory schedule

17.1.3 Product inventory and schedule

17.1.4 Outline operating schedule

17.1.5 Detailed operating program and schedule

17.1.6 Typical weekly program

17.1.7 Typical factors used in capacity factored estimates

17.1.8 Example of a process specification

17.1.9 Example of a process guarantee

Chapter 17.2. Economic analysis

Introduction

Analysis at one point in time

Cost of production

Reporting parameters

Appendices

17.2.1 Background for economic calculations

17.2.2 Progressions

17.2.3 Loan repayments (mortgage formula)

17.2.4 Average rate of interest

Chapter 18. Process equipment in petroleum refining

Introduction

18.1 Vessels

Fractionators, trays, and packings

Drums and drum design

Specifying pressure vessels

18.2 Pumps

Pump selection

Selection characteristics

Capacity range

Evaluating pump performance

Specifying a centrifugal pump

The mechanical specification

The process specification

Compiling the pump calculation sheet

Centrifugal pump seals

Pump drivers and utilities

Reacceleration requirement

The principle of the turbine driver

The performance of the steam turbine

18.3 Compressors

Calculating horsepower of centrifugal compressors

Centrifugal compressor surge control, performance curves and seals

Specifying a centrifugal compressor

Calculating reciprocating compressor horsepower

Reciprocating compressor controls and inter-cooling

Specifying a reciprocating compressor

Compressor drivers, utilities, and ancillary equipment

18.4 Heat exchangers

General design considerations

Choice of tube side versus shell side

Estimating shell and tube surface area and pressure drop

Air coolers and condensers

Condensers

Reboilers

18.5 Fired heaters

Codes and standards

Thermal rating

Heater efficiency

Burners

Refractories, stacks, and stack emissions

Specifying a fired heater

Appendices

18.1 LMTD correction factors

18.2 Heat of combustion of fuel oils

18.3 Heat of combustion of fuel gasses

18.4 Values for coefficient C

18.5 Some common heat transfer coefficients

18.6 Standard exchanger tube sheet data

Chapter 19. A dictionary of terms and expressions

Appendices

A Examples of working flow sheets

B General data

B1 Friction loss for viscous liquids

B2 Resistance of valves and fittings

B3 Viscosity versus temperature

B4 Specific gravity versus temperature

B5 Relationship between specific gravity and API degrees

B6 Flow pressure drop for gas streams

B7 Relationship of chords, diameters, and areas

C A selection of crude oil assays

D Conversion factors

E An example of an exercise using linear programming

Linear programming aids decisions on refinery configurations

Alphabetic index

 

 

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