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The AVR chips all have internal hardware that can be used. For this description of the hardware the 90S8515 was used. Newer chips like the Mega8515 may differ and have more or less internal hardware. You will need to read the manufacturers data sheet for the processor you are using to learn about the special internal hardware available. Timer / Counters The AT90S8515 provides two general purpose Timer/Counters – one 8-bit T/C and one 16-bit T/C. The Timer/Counters have individual pre-scaling selection from the same 10-bit pre-scaling timer. Both Timer/Counters can either be used as a timer with an internal clock time base or as a counter with an external pin connection which triggers the counting. timer-counter prescaler

All AVR ports have true Read-Modify-Write functionality when used as general digital I/O ports. This means that the direction of one port pin can be changed without unintentionally changing the direction of any other pin with the SBI and CBI instructions. The same applies when changing drive value (if configured as output) or enabling/disabling of pull-up resistors (if configured as input). Each output buffer has symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink and source capability. The pin driver is strong enough to drive LED displays directly. All port pins have individually selectable pull-up resistors with a supply-voltage invariant resistance. All I/O pins have protection diodes to both VCC and Ground as indicated in Figure. input and output port in avr atmega 8535 All registers and bit references in this section are written in general form. A lower case “x” represents the numbering letter for the port, and a lower case “n” represents the bit number. However, when using the register or bit defines in a program, the precise form must be used. For example, PORTB3 for bit no. 3 in Port B, here documented generally as PORTxn. The physical I/O Registers and bit locations are listed in “Register Description for I/O-Ports” on page 63. Three I/O memory address locations are allocated for each port, one each for the Data Register – PORTx, Data Direction Register – DDRx, and the Port Input Pins – PINx. The Port Input Pins I/O location is read only, while the Data Register and the Data Direction Register are read/write. In addition, the Pull-up Disable – PUD bit in SFIOR disables the pull-up function for all pins in all ports when set. Most port pins are multiplexed with alternate functions for the peripheral features on the device. How each alternate function interferes with the port pin is described in “Alternate Port Functions”. Refer to the individual module sections for a full description of the alternate functions. Note that enabling the alternate function of some of the port pins does not affect the use of the other pins in the port as general digital I/O. General Digital Input-output Each port pin consists of three register bits: DDxn, PORTxn, and PINxn. As shown in “Register Description for I/O-Ports” on page 63, the DDxn bits are accessed at the DDRx I/O address, the PORTxn bits at the PORTx I/O address, and the PINxn bits at the PINx I/O address. The DDxn bit in the DDRx Register selects the direction of this pin. If DDxn is written logic one, Pxn is configured as an output pin. If DDxn is written logic zero, Pxn is configured as an input pin. If PORTxn is written a logic one when the pin is configured as an input pin, the pull-up resistor is activated. To switch the pull-up resistor off, PORTxn has to be written logic zero or the pin has to be configured as an output pin. The port pins are tri-stated when a reset condition becomes active, even if no clocks are running. If PORTxn is written a logic one when the pin is configured as an output pin, the port pin is driven high (one). If PORTxn is written a logic zero when the pin is configured as an output pin, the port pin is driven low (zero). When switching between tri-state ({DDxn, PORTxn} = 0b00) and output high ({DDxn, PORTxn} = 0b11), an intermediate state with either pull-up enabled ({DDxn, PORTxn} = 0b01) or output low ({DDxn, PORTxn} = 0b10) must occur. Normally, the pull-up enabled state is fully acceptable, as a high-impedant environment will not notice the difference between a strong high driver and a pull-up. If this is not the case, the PUD bit in the SFIOR Register can be set to disable all pull-ups in all ports. Switching between input with pull-up and output low generates the same problem. The user must use either the tri-state ({DDxn, PORTxn} = 0b00) or the output high state ({DDxn, PORTxn} = 0b10) as an intermediate step.